Women’s Rights and the Evolution of Social Practices in the Middle East and North Africa
In the last years of the 19th century, three women would be born who would become trailblazers for their societies and a symbol of their husband’s modernization drive. They were Latife Uşakizâde — the future wife of Mustapha Kemal Ataturk of Turkey; Soraya Tarzi, the future queen of Afghanistan’s Amanullah Khan, and Nimtaj Ayromlu, the future queen of Iran’s Reza Shah Pahlavi. These figures became trailblazers because of what they chose not to wear – the veil. Dressed in Western fashion, they accompanied their husbands to official ceremonies and to predominantly male public events. They sat, conversed, and shook hands with men who were not their mahram. For tens of centuries, women had not conducted themselves in this manner in Muslim countries.
With their actions, they blurred the strict barrier between the male and female domains in their society that had secluded women. They paved the way for their countrywomen to demand more rights and opportunities. And, they succeeded – partially. In 1929, the Afghan constitution enshrined equal rights for women and men. In Turkey, women gained the right to vote in 1934. And in Iran, women gained access to universities and became ministers and ambassadors.
The Global Context of Women’s Movements
Until the 19th century, women across the world enjoyed by and large far fewer rights than men, though the way their inequality manifested itself differed from country to country. With few exceptional periods, women were generally excluded from the domains of power throughout history, were relegated to be second class citizens, and were subservient to men. Slowly, women began to organize themselves to advocate seriously for greater rights.
In Europe, these movements coincided with broader citizens’ demand for voice and participation in government, which led to a series of republican revolts of 1848. Even though the revolts failed, they launched the discourse about citizens’ rights. In the United States, the Seneca Falls Women’s Convention of 1848 is widely referred to as a critical turning point for the women’s movement in North America, which led to the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920 to give women the right to vote. These events naturally influenced the developments in the MENA region.
Understanding the Concept of Purdah
Pardah or purdah (from Hindi-Urdu meaning "curtain") is a religious and social practice of sex segregation prevalent among some Muslim, Zoroastrian, and Hindu communities in South Asia. The practice generally takes two forms: social segregation of the sexes and the requirement that women cover their bodies, as well as traditionally the faces. Physical segregation within buildings is achieved with judicious use of walls, curtains, and screens. A woman's withdrawal into purdah usually restricts her personal, social and economic activities outside her home.
To better understand the variations in these practices, the following table summarizes key types of Islamic female dress and related concepts mentioned in the historical material:
| Term | Description and Context |
|---|---|
| Purdah | A social practice of sex segregation; derived from the Persian word for "curtain". |
| Burqa / Yashmak | A garment or veil used to conceal the face and body. |
| Ghoonghat | Practiced by married Hindu women in parts of Northern India in the presence of older male relations. |
| Zenana / Andaruni | Terms associated with female quarters and gender segregation. |
The Historical Roots of Female Seclusion
Although purdah is commonly associated with Islam, many scholars argue that veiling and secluding women pre-dates Islam; these practices were commonly found among various groups in the Middle East such as Zoroastrian, Christian, and Jewish communities. For instance, the burqa existed in Arabia before Islam, and the mobility of upper-class women was restricted in Babylonia, Persian, and Byzantine Empires before the advent of Islam. Historians believe purdah was acquired by the Muslims during the expansion of the Arab Empire into modern-day Iraq in the 7th century C.E. and that Islam merely added religious significance to already existing local practices of the times.
By the 19th century, purdah became customary among high-caste Hindu and elite communities throughout India. The spread of purdah outside of the Muslim community can be attributed to the tendency of affluent classes to mirror the societal practices of the nobility. However, purdah was not strictly observed by lower-class women.
Intellectual Shifts and Modern Self-Examination
Faced with a decaying Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 19th century, thinkers and scholars across MENA began a process of introspection and soul-searching about the roots of their societies’ stagnation. A contributing factor to this self-examination was Charles Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species (1859) that had widely shaken up intellectual thought worldwide. It discredited the creation theory, thus undermining religious teachings and establishments which had a stronghold on people’s lives. This was like wind in the sails of secular intellectuals, who had often been at odds with organized religions.